Thureophoroi and Epigonoi

Today I wanted to make a post that gives some more detail on the mercenary band in the short stories I write, and to talk a bit about Thureophoroi.

The mercenary band led by Nikanthos is, at its core, a group of Greek aristocrats who perform a variety of ad hoc military duties. Their upbringing included training with various arms, athletics, and some academics. Because of this diverse education, and the spread of Greek culture across the Mediterranean, Nikanthos and his companions have a wide range of employment options. They may be working as guards for a local king one day, or carrying out a small raid for a wealthy magnate against a rival the next. At times they might fill out the ranks of a phalanx, scout as light cavalry if horses are available, or assault a key position on the battlefield or a city wall.

While Nikanthos and his central group of Greeks can serve many different roles, not all of the men in his mercenary company can do that. Because of this, the company’s preferred role is something closer to medium or light infantry. Their numbers can fluctuate greatly, and they enlist men from many different backgrounds and cultures. A specialized fighting unit such as a hoplite phalanx would therefore not suit them particularly well. Since horseback riding-especially horseback riding in combat-required extensive training and the upkeep of horses, they also don't commonly carry out cavalry duties.

One thing that immediately came to my mind to represent this mercenary group is Thureophoroi. But before going into my research on Thureophoroi, it is worth pointing out some basic features of Greek armies leading into the Hellenistic Age. The typical ancient Greek army consisted of hoplites, lighter support units, and cavalry. Hoplites were the spear-and-shield armed foot soldiers who form the focus of most battlefield retellings in our sources. Other troops were certainly present, but they often received less attention in the surviving accounts. This makes it difficult to know all the details of how battles unfolded and how much of an impact these supporting troops may have had. In the Hellenistic Age—roughly the period between the death of Alexander the Great and the Roman conquest of Egypt—cavalry and various types of lighter infantry appear more frequently in the sources and form a clearer part of battlefield descriptions.

“Thureophoroi” is a label that begins to appear in our sources in the early 3rd century BC. While we don’t have a clean and precise definition of Thureophoroi from our ancient sources, we can start to paint a picture from references and descriptions that we do have. Writers such as Polybius refer to troops “armed in the manner of the Thureophoroi,” while later descriptions, such as those preserved by Plutarch, describe soldiers who could “skirmish at a distance” and then fight in close order with spears. From descriptions like these, I have seen Thureophoroi depicted in video games, art, models, and modern history books as infantry wearing little to no armor, wielding a spear and sword for offense, and utilizing a shield for protection. Most commonly, this shield is depicted as the oval Thureos shield. However, this picture is not as clear-cut as it might seem. To better understand what Thureophoroi were—and what they may have been—we can look at their possible origins, typical equipment, and their role on and off the battlefield.

 

Origins and demographics

Many of our sources and references of Thureophoroi are from around the 3rd century BC. It does not mean that this is when Thureophoroi first appeared. It’s hard to pinpoint an exact date and we don’t know the origin of the term Thureophoroi. Light troops had always existed in Greek armies, so it’s possible that Thureophoroi are a natural evolution of light troops to fit the campaign and battlefield demands of the time. There is also a theory that Thureophoroi originate from clashes with the Celts and Italians on the periphery of the Greek world. From this theory, Thureophoroi appear as a result of Greek light troops and other infantry adopting Celtic and Italian arms and tactics. One other theory that I have seen is that Thureophoroi is a generic term understood at the time to refer to medium infantry in Greek armies. It’s also completely possible that the origin of Thureophoroi is some combination of all of the factors and others. Whatever their origin, I think it’s important to keep in mind that light and medium infantry existed in Greek armies prior to the 3rd century and that it’s possible Thureophoroi were around prior to the dates we see them referenced. So it does not make my Thureophoroi like-infantry completely out of place in the 310s BC.

Culturally, Thureophoroi and other light troops could include people from across the Mediterranean and Near East. Fighting in a phalanx required more intense training and communication than serving as light or medium infantry, so the ranks of light troops could be more easily filled by a diverse range of cultures. Fighting in the ranks of Hoplites and Phalangites was more prestigious and exclusionary as well, while serving in the ranks of light troops was more open to different cultures and levels of society. Due to more open eligibility, cheaper armaments, and less training required, Thureophoroi and other light troops did appear more frequently in the near constant state of war the Hellenistic world found itself in. So while many Thureophoroi were Greek, it’s important to keep in mind that their cultural makeup could be very diverse. This will also be true of their equipment and duties discussed below.

Arms and Armor

The archetypal Thureophoroi would use the Thureos shield and little to no other armor for protection. But, because most ancient armies were not composed of professional soldiers with consistent state supplied equipment, you would most likely see Thureophoroi wearing and using a range of armor and shields. This range of equipment would be narrowed down by availability, personal preference, and anything that did not interfere with their primary role as light troops. So their equipment would probably most often include smaller shields like the pelte, while also featuring larger oval shields such as the thureos. Heavier and more cumbersome shields, such as the hoplite aspis or Roman scutum, were likely less suited to their role.heavier armor would likely have been uncommon. For additional protection, some Thureophoroi may have also worn the linothorax, a bronze helmet, or greaves. Full cuirass, scale armor, and armor in general would have been uncommon. Fighting in organized groups on an open battlefield would be a situation where you could see them wearing heavier equipment.

Just like their armor, the weapons of Thureophoroi would depend on the situation. In both ancient depictions and the books I’ve read, their arsenal could include spears, swords, and javelins. Similar to other light troops, Thureophoroi would use their javelins when at a distance to harass or soften up enemy formations, before engaging with spears or swords. The same javelins used for throwing could also be used in melee, but it’s possible that a separate, longer spear similar to the Doru was used specifically for thrusting at close range. In addition or as an alternative, a Kopis or Xiphos blade could be used as well. 

Military role

The key strength of the Thureophoroi was their flexibility and ability to perform many different duties. On a pitched battlefield, Thureophoroi would most often be positioned on the flanks of the hoplite or pike phalanxes of Greek and Macedonian Successor armies. From this position, Thureophoroi could help protect the flanks of their own phalanx, or drive off opposing light infantry in order to attack the flanks of an opposing phalanx. (When fighting against another Hellenic army). 

Off the battlefield, Thureophoroi would act as scouts or flank guards when on the march, perform raids along with cavalry and other light troops, or be left as garrisons in forts and cities. They were able to handle each of these tasks due to their light equipment and flexible fighting style. Their ability to handle these duties helps explain why such troops appear more prominently in Hellenistic armies. Hoplites were not completely replaced in Greek armies by light troops as they still had a pivotal role in set piece battles. But Hoplites and Phalangites were poorly suited for the off the battlefield tasks Thureophoroi carried out.

How Thureophoroi fit into my tablet top scenario

For this scenario, I have two units trained as “Thureophoroi.” One of these units is the hand picked bodyguard of the Tyrant of Cyrene, leader of the Cyrenaican side. I think Epigonoi, or hand picked men, would be the best way to describe this core unit of Nikanthos' most veteran mercenaries. The other unit is of militia grade and represents the citizens that did not have or could not afford the Hoplite panoply. Rather than having them serve as unorganized skirmishers, the Tyrant has given them some training and organization to match his own mercenary band.     Below are some pictures of my 15mm miniatures used to represent Nikanthos and his Epigonoi. They are not finished yet, so I will get some pictures with better lighting when I finish with the terrain, equipment, and details on them.

 

Pictured from left to right in the front rank are Poulimikros, Nikanthos, and Bardylis.

Poulimikros is a youth from Athens. He abandoned his polis to join the Greeks returning from Alexander's campaign against the Persians. Much like Nikanthos, Poulimikros has a romanticized image of war from stories like the Iliad, the Theban Cycle, and many other poetic writings of the time. Nikanthos has since come to better understand the reality of war and uses Poulimikros as a page, keeping him close and training him to better protect him.

Nikanthos is the current leader of this mercenary band. He is originally from Thessaly and served under Alexander the Great alongside many of his peers. After Alexander dismissed his Greek allies, Nikanthos spent a short time back in Thessaly before he was exiled. Now he travels the Mediterranean as a mercenary.

Bardylis is an Illyrian who joined the mercenary band after they spent some time in Illyria. He was originally a rival of Nikanthos working for the same employer. Nikanthos soon won over Bardylis and a number of other Illyrians. Most of the other Illyrians stay in their own ethnic ranks of light infantry.

Over on the left, Omiros is flanked by two common soldiers in the group. Omiros is also Thessalian and a close friend of Nikanthos. Omiros has known Nikanthos since childhood and many of his family members travel with the mercenary band.

Just behind them, are two more unnamed soldiers. I’ll have the 3rd added when I finish painting him.

In the back right, there is one named character on the left. His name is Bostar and he is a sailor of Punic origin. Bostar recently joined the mercenary band after deserting a Carthaginian fleet passing through Cyrene.

The colors I chose were inspired by the color design of the RX-78 Gundam. I wanted the named characters to stand out a bit more, so only the unnamed members of the group are uniformed. Uniformity in equipment and outfits was almost non-existent in ancient armies. I’m guessing it would be even rarer to see in a mercenary group of various origins with people frequently joining, dying, or leaving. I have reasoned that for Nikanthos’ band, he has opted to provide members with some uniform clothing, most notably the blue capes. Because of the mixed origins of the group’s members, how frequently people leave or join, and how chaotic and loose their formation would get on campaign and during missions, Nikanthos wanted a way to help identify friend from foe.

Later this month or at the beginning of next month, I’ll have my next post focusing on Sparta and some Spartan mercenaries I have fighting for the Allied Greek side.

Community Engagement Question:

Is there a military unit of ancient history that you wish you could learn more about? One that comes to mind for me is the Carthaginian Sacred Band. I have plans for an upcoming article on them way way down the line. Sources: Plutarch. Parallel Lives: Philopoemen Polybius Histories

Duncan Head “ Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars”

Peter Connolly “Greece and Rome at War”

Who were the Thureophoroi by The History Network

Who were the Thureophoroi and how did they fight by The History Network

https://militaryhistorynow.com/2017/03/13/warfare-after-alexander-the-armies-of-the-early-hellenistic-era/ Other sources that I have not finished reading yet: Greek Warfare: Myth and Realities by Hans van Wees Combined Arms Warfare in Ancient Greece by Graham Wrightson